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Drone flights

honey bee, drone in flight

Honey bee drone in flight.


Before take-off a drone cleans its antennae and eyes. This often occurs at the nest entrance. After take-off drones produce characteristic sound which is different from sound produced by flying workers. Drones perform flights not only from the nest but also from swarm cluster Drone honey bee flight from clustered swarms,
Annals of the Entomological Society of America
, Volume 67, Number 4, p.683–684, (1974)
[1].

Drones fly only during favourable weather conditions, when air temperature is higher than 19 °C The mating of the honeybee,
Bee World
, Volume 3, p.2-15, 23-24, (1956)
[2]Die Flugaktivität von Drohnen der Rasse Apis mellifica carnica L und Apis mellifera ligustica L. in Abhängigkeit von Lebensalter und Witterung.,
Z. Bienenforsch.
, Volume 9, p.390-409, (1969)
[3]Untersuchungen über die Flugaktivität und das Paarungsverhalten der drohnen. VI. Flug auf und über Höhenrücken,
Apidologie
, Volume 7, p.331-341, (1976)
[4]The flight of honey bee drones, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera, Apidae), to the queen in relation to various ecological factors,
Entomological Review
, Volume 56, p.53-56, (1978)
[5]. It was suggested that drones do not fly when the temperature exceeds 38 °C Variation in drone mating flight times among commercial honey bee stocks,
Apidologie
, Volume 17, p.137-158, (1986)
[6]. Activity of drones is reduced when wind speed exceeds 4-6 m/s The mating of the honeybee,
Bee World
, Volume 3, p.2-15, 23-24, (1956)
[2]. Drones fly 10 - 40 m above ground; the flight height is lower during windy weather The life and flight activity of drones,
Bee World
, Volume 47, p.93-100, (1966)
[7]. Drones of different subspecies can fly at different heights Assortative mating in a mixed population of European honeybees, Apis mellifera ligustica and Apis mellifera carnica,
Insectes sociaux
, Volume 36, Number 2, p.129–138, (1989)
[8].

Peak of drone flight activity occurs between 14:00 and 16:30 Factors influencing the circadian flight rhythm of drone honey bees,
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.
, Volume 57, p.769-775, (1964)
[9]Observations on the flight and length of life of drone bees,
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.
, Volume 26, p.239-246, (1933)
[10]The flight of honey bee drones, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera, Apidae), to the queen in relation to various ecological factors,
Entomological Review
, Volume 56, p.53-56, (1978)
[5]A problem of the biology of drones [in Russian],
Pchelovodstvo
, Volume 24, p.57-59, (1947)
[11]The life and flight activity of drones,
Bee World
, Volume 47, p.93-100, (1966)
[7]Communication signals used in worker–drone interactions in the honeybee, Apis mellifera,
Animal Behaviour
, Volume 78, Number 2, p.247–254, (2009)
[12] but see Genetic composition and phenology of mating drone congregations in the honey bee Apis mellifera,
Revue d'Ecologie
, Volume 64, Number 4, p.343–350, (2009)
[13] and it depends on weather conditions Factors influencing the circadian flight rhythm of drone honey bees,
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.
, Volume 57, p.769-775, (1964)
[9]On drone flight activity [in Russian],
Opytnaja Paseka
, Volume 3, p.209-214, (1928)
[14]Die Flugaktivität von Drohnen der Rasse Apis mellifica carnica L und Apis mellifera ligustica L. in Abhängigkeit von Lebensalter und Witterung.,
Z. Bienenforsch.
, Volume 9, p.390-409, (1969)
[3]Flight activity of drones of different races [In Russian],
Pchelovodstvo
, Volume 10, p.16-17, (1969)
[15]Einfluss von Umweltfaktoren auf die Drohnenflugaktivität,
Apidologie
, Volume 15, p.277, (1984)
[16]. In higher temperature flights start later Variation in drone mating flight times among commercial honey bee stocks,
Apidologie
, Volume 17, p.137-158, (1986)
[6] and they are longer Einfluss von Umweltfaktoren auf die Drohnenflugaktivität,
Apidologie
, Volume 15, p.277, (1984)
[16]. Time of day when the drones perform flights differs between some species of the genus Apis Comparative observations on the flight activity of drones [In Russian],
Pchelovodstvo
, Volume 37, p.43-45, (1960)
[17]Time of drone flight in the three Asiatic honey bee species (Apis cerana, Apis florea, Apis dorsata),
J. Apic. Res.
, Volume 15, p.67-71, (1976)
[18]Time of drone flight in 4 honey-bee species in south-eastern Thailand,
Journal of Apicultural Research
, Volume 32, Number 1, p.27–33, (1993)
[19]Crossfostered drones ofApis cerana (Fabricius, 1793) andApis koschevnikovi (Buttel-Reepen, 1906) fly at their species specific mating times,
Insectes Sociaux
, Volume 41, Number 1, p.73–78, (1994)
[20]The mating flight times of native Apis cerana japonica Radoszkowski and introduced Apis mellifera L in sympatric conditions,
Apidologie
, Volume 25, Number 4, p.353–360, (1994)
[21]Competition between drones and between spermatozoa of Apis cerana and Apis mellifera,
Asian Bee Journal
, Volume 5, Issue 1-2, Number 1-2, p.39-42, (2003)
[22] but see Reproductive interference between honey bee species in artificial sympatry,
Molecular Ecology
, p.(in press), (2014)
[23]. This can be important for isolation of species. Differences in this respect between subspecies of Apis mellifera are smaller Die Flugaktivität von Drohnen der Rasse Apis mellifica carnica L und Apis mellifera ligustica L. in Abhängigkeit von Lebensalter und Witterung.,
Z. Bienenforsch.
, Volume 9, p.390-409, (1969)
[3]Flight activity of drones of different races [In Russian],
Pchelovodstvo
, Volume 10, p.16-17, (1969)
[15]Variation in drone mating flight times among commercial honey bee stocks,
Apidologie
, Volume 17, p.137-158, (1986)
[6]A possible solution to the African bee problem: a proposal to maximize genetic dilution of African bees through the development of a European stock with late-flying drones,
Proceedings of the Africanized Honey Bee Symposium
, Atlanta, p.55–72, (1986)
[24]Flight time differences between Africanized and European drones: implications for controlling matings,
American Bee Journal
, Volume 127, p.846, (1987)
[25]Flight time differences between Africanized and European drones,
Int. Conf. Apic. Trop. Climates
, Volume 127, Cairo, p.478-480, (1988)
[26]Assortative mating in a mixed population of European honeybees, Apis mellifera ligustica and Apis mellifera carnica,
Insectes sociaux
, Volume 36, Number 2, p.129–138, (1989)
[8]Flight times of Africanized and European honey bee drones (Hymenoptera: Apidae),
Journal of Economic Entomology
, Volume 84, Number 1, p.61–64, (1991)
[27]Timing of mating flights of Neotropical African and European honey bee queens and drones (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in eastern Venezuela.,
University of Kansas Museum of Natural History Special Publication
, Volume 24, p.103–109, (1999)
[28]A scientific note on the drone flight time of Apis mellifera capensis and A. m. scutellata,
Apidologie
, Volume 38, Number 5, p.436–437, (2007)
[29]Genetic structure of drone congregation areas of Africanized honeybees in southern Brazil,
Genetics and Molecular Biology
, Volume 32, Number 4, p.857–863, (2009)
[30]. Solar time Evidence for reproductive isolation between two colour morphs of cavity nesting honey bees (Apis) in south India,
Insectes Sociaux
, Volume 53, Number 4, p.428–434, (2006)
[31] should be used in future research in order for easier comparisons between studies.

The first flights made by a drone are called orientation flights. Drones start flying at age 8.28±1.74 days The influence of Nosema apis on maturation and flight activity of honey bee drones,
Pszczelnicze Zeszyty Naukowe
, Volume 40, p.55-60, (1996)
[32]. Drones from strain selected for higher pollen collection start flying ate earlier age Male maturation response to selection of the pollenhoarding syndrome in honey bees (Apis mellifera L),
Animal Behav.
, Volume 71, p.227-234, (2006)
[33]. The orientation flights last 1 - 6 minutes Observations on the flight and length of life of drone bees,
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.
, Volume 26, p.239-246, (1933)
[10]. It was suggested that the purpose of the short flights is orientation Die Flugaktivität von Drohnen der Rasse Apis mellifica carnica L und Apis mellifera ligustica L. in Abhängigkeit von Lebensalter und Witterung.,
Z. Bienenforsch.
, Volume 9, p.390-409, (1969)
[3], during those flight drones also defecate.

Flights of older drones last 32.56±22.49 minutes Duration of flight and of interflight time of drone honeybees, Apis mellifera,
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.
, Volume 64, p.609-612, (1971)
[34]. Those flights are called mating flights. During those flights drones visit drone congregation areas and attempt to mate with a queen, but only small fraction of them has a chance to mate. Duration of a mating flight is limited by the amount of honey in crop of drone. Weight of drones crop is 17.7±9.1 mg at the time of leaving the nest and 4.3±6.3 mg at the time of returning to the nest The food of adult drone honeybees (Apis mellifera),
British Journal of Animal Behaviour
, Volume 5, p.7-11, (1957)
[35]Drone engorgement in honey bee swarms,
Annals of the Entomological Society of America
, Volume 66, Number 5, p.1005–1006, (1973)
[36]. During hours when flights occur drones are more engorged than during other hours of the day Drone engorgement in honey bee swarms,
Annals of the Entomological Society of America
, Volume 66, Number 5, p.1005–1006, (1973)
[36]. After returning from the flight to the nest drones spend there 17.14±24.42 minutes before going for another flight. During this time drones eat honey and store it in their crop. There can be up to 5 flights during one afternoon Die Flugaktivität von Drohnen der Rasse Apis mellifica carnica L und Apis mellifera ligustica L. in Abhängigkeit von Lebensalter und Witterung.,
Z. Bienenforsch.
, Volume 9, p.390-409, (1969)
[3] but usually there is 3 or less Duration of flight and of interflight time of drone honeybees, Apis mellifera,
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.
, Volume 64, p.609-612, (1971)
[34]. Drone flight duration was reported by several authors At what age are drone-bees disposed to mate?,
American Bee Journal
, Volume 24, p.55, (1888)
[37]On drone flight activity [in Russian],
Opytnaja Paseka
, Volume 3, p.209-214, (1928)
[14]Observations on the flight and length of life of drone bees,
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.
, Volume 26, p.239-246, (1933)
[10]A problem of the biology of drones [in Russian],
Pchelovodstvo
, Volume 24, p.57-59, (1947)
[11]When are drones sexually mature? [in Russian],
Pchelovodstvo
, Volume 30, p.28-32, (1953)
[38]Observations on the flight of drone honeybees,
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.
, Volume 49, p.497-500, (1956)
[39] for review see Duration of flight and of interflight time of drone honeybees, Apis mellifera,
Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer.
, Volume 64, p.609-612, (1971)
[34].

Drones at drone congregation area are less asymmetrical than drones remaining in the colony Mating flights select for symmetry in honeybee drones (Apis mellifera),
Naturwissenschaften
, Volume 97, Number 3, p.337-343, (2010)
[40]. This suggests better flight performance of less asymmetrical drones. Flight performance of drones can be affected by Varroa infestation Decreased flight performance and sperm production in drones of the honey bee (Apis mellifera) slightly infested by Varroa destructor mites during pupal development,
Genet. Mol. Res
, Volume 1, Number 3, p.227–232, (2002)
[41] and inbreeding Der Einfluss der Inzucht auf die Fitness der Drohnen von Apis mellifera carnica,
Apidologie
, Volume 12, p.41-55, (1981)
[42].

During flight drones probably use landmarks for their orientation The life and flight activity of drones,
Bee World
, Volume 47, p.93-100, (1966)
[7]Untersuchungen über die Flugaktivität und das Paarungverhalten der Drohnen. 3. Flugweite und Flugrichtung der Drohnen,
Z. Bienenforsch.
, Volume 8, p.332-354, (1966)
[43]A Landscape Analysis to Understand Orientation of Honey Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Drones in Puerto Rico,
Environmental Entomology
, (2015)
[44]. Drones often return to a colony other than their own Drifting behaviour of drone honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) in commercial apiaries,
J. Apic. Res
, Volume 30, Number 2, p.61–68, (1991)
[45], sometimes they return to a colony in different apiary Genetic differentiation and hybridization in the honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) in Switzerland,
Philosophisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät
, Bern, p.69, (2006)
[46].
In drones oxygen consumption during flight is two-fold higher than in workers Oxygen consumption and flight muscle activity during heating in workers and drones of Apis mellifera,
Journal of Comparative Physiology B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology
, Volume 161, Number 1, p.61–67, (1991)
[47]. In comparison to workers drones have during flight higher thorax temperature The effect of thorax temperature on force production during tethered flight in honeybee (Apis mellifera) drones, workers, and queens,
Physiological Zoology
, Volume 64, Number 3, p.823–835, (1991)
[48]. Force production during tethered flight in drones (3.95±0.23 mN) is higher than in queens and workers The effect of thorax temperature on force production during tethered flight in honeybee (Apis mellifera) drones, workers, and queens,
Physiological Zoology
, Volume 64, Number 3, p.823–835, (1991)
[48]. Drone flight is fuelled by highly concentrated nectar (median: 71.6%) transported in both crop and midgut. In the crop there is only about 5 microliters of nectar Honeybee males use highly concentrated nectar as fuel for mating flights,
Journal of Insect Physiology
, Volume 93, p.50–55, (2016)
[49].

During flight drones move their wings 225.0±5.8 times per second Wing beat frequencies of Apis cerana indica and Apis mellifera.,
Journal of Apicultural Research
, Volume 16, p.47-48, (1977)
[50] which is slower than in workers (235.2±7.5).

Other references: Flight activity and sexual maturity of drones [in Russian],
Pchelovodstvo
, Volume 12, p.24–28, (1956)
[51]Effect of certain factors on mating flights of honey bee queens [in Polish],
Pszczelnicze Zeszyty Naukowe
, Volume 3, p.109-120, (1958)
[52]Pheromonal activity and fine structure of the mandibular glands of honeybee drones (Apis mellifera L.) (Insecta, Hymenoptera, Apidae),
J. Insect Physiol.
, Volume 31, p.265-276, (1985)
[53]Spatial Dynamics of the Honey Bee Mating System (Apis mellifera L.),
Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society
, Volume 65, p.218–222, (1992)
[54]The flight physiology of reproductives of Africanized, European, and hybrid honeybees (Apis mellifera),
Physiological and Biochemical Zoology: PBZ
, Volume 78, Number 2, p.153-162, (2005)
[55]Honeybees of Africa,
, Berlin, (1998)
[56]